divergence and differences between the various branches of the educational system, which he states are a major cause of the backwardness of Islamic civilization, which constitutes true civilization, in relation to modem civilization. He says: "Those in the medreses accuse those in the mektebs of weakness in belief because of their literalist interpretation of certain matters, whereas those in the mektebs consider the former to be ignorant and unreliable because they have no knowledge of modem science. While those in the medreses look at those in the tekkes as though they were following innovations..." While recognizing the differences in their ways, he stresses that the barriers between them should be broken down and by way of a remedy modem science be taught in the medreses "in place of obsolete ancient philosophy", religious sciences be taught "fully" in the secular schools, and scholars from the medreses, "some of the most learned ulema", be present in the Sufi; tekkes. He then goes on to analyze the reasons for the ineffectiveness of the preachers, who played such a vital role in educating the mass of the people. He gives three "causes", which we quote in full:

"The First Cause: by comparing the present to the past, they merely represented what they claimed in glittering terms. In former times ease of mind and blind imitation of the ulema prevailed, and for these proof was not necessary. But now an urge to investigate the truth has emerged in everyone. In the face of this, embroidering a claim has no effect. In order for it to be effective, it is necessary to prove what is claimed, and to convince.

"The Second Cause: by deterring from one thing and encouraging another, they reduce the value of something else more important. For example, I, they say that to perform two rekats of prayers at night is like circumambulating the Ka'ba, or that if someone indulges in backbiting, it is as though he has committed furnication.

"The Third Cause: they do not speak conformably with the demands of the situation and necessities of the time, which is the requirement of eloquence. It is as if they draw people into the comers of former times, then speak to them. That is to say, I want preachers to be both searching scholars, so that they can prove what they claim, and subtle philosophers so that they do not spoil the